Fighting the Factory the Arts and Crafts Movement Answer Key

Design movement c. 1880–1920

The Arts and Crafts motility was an international tendency in the decorative and fine arts that adult earliest and about fully in the British Isles^[i] and subsequently spread beyond the British Empire and to the rest of Europe and America.^[2]

Initiated in reaction against the perceived impoverishment of the decorative arts and the weather condition in which they were produced,^[3] the motility flourished in Europe and North America between about 1880 and 1920. It is the root of the Modern Manner, the British expression of what later came to be chosen the Art Nouveau movement, which it strongly influenced.^[4] In Japan it emerged in the 1920s as the Mingei movement. It stood for traditional craftsmanship, and often used medieval, romantic, or folk styles of decoration. It advocated economic and social reform and was anti-industrial in its orientation.^{[3] [v]} Information technology had a strong influence on the arts in Europe until it was displaced by Modernism in the 1930s,^[1] and its influence connected amid craft makers, designers, and town planners long afterwards.^[6]

The term was first used past T. J. Cobden-Sanderson at a meeting of the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society in 1887,^[7] although the principles and fashion on which it was based had been developing in England for at least 20 years. It was inspired by the ideas of architect Augustus Pugin, writer John Ruskin, and designer William Morris.^[8] In Scotland it is associated with key figures such every bit Charles Rennie Mackintosh.^[9]

Origins and influences [edit]

Blueprint reform [edit]

The Arts and Crafts movement emerged from the attempt to reform design and decoration in mid-19th century Britain. It was a reaction confronting a perceived reject in standards that the reformers associated with machinery and factory production. Their critique was sharpened by the items that they saw in the Smashing Exhibition of 1851, which they considered to exist excessively ornate, bogus, and ignorant of the qualities of the materials used. Art historian Nikolaus Pevsner writes that the exhibits showed "ignorance of that basic need in creating patterns, the integrity of the surface", as well as displaying "vulgarity in particular".^[10] Design reform began with Exhibition organizers Henry Cole (1808–1882), Owen Jones (1809–1874), Matthew Digby Wyatt (1820–1877), and Richard Redgrave (1804–1888),^[11] all of whom deprecated excessive ornamentation and impractical or badly made things.^[12] The organizers were "unanimous in their condemnation of the exhibits."^[13] Owen Jones, for example, complained that "the architect, the upholsterer, the paper-stainer, the weaver, the calico-printer, and the potter" produced "novelty without beauty, or beauty without intelligence."^[xiii] From these criticisms of manufactured goods emerged several publications which set out what the writers considered to be the correct principles of pattern. Richard Redgrave's Supplementary Study on Design (1852) analysed the principles of design and ornament and pleaded for "more logic in the awarding of decoration."^[12] Other works followed in a like vein, such as Wyatt'southward Industrial Arts of the Nineteenth Century (1853), Gottfried Semper's Wissenschaft, Industrie und Kunst ("Science, Manufacture and Art") (1852), Ralph Wornum'south Assay of Ornament (1856), Redgrave'south Transmission of Pattern (1876), and Jones's Grammer of Decoration (1856).^[12] The Grammar of Ornament was particularly influential, liberally distributed as a student prize and running into ix reprints by 1910.^[12]

Jones declared that ornament "must be secondary to the thing busy", that there must exist "fitness in the ornament to the affair ornamented", and that wallpapers and carpets must not take any patterns "suggestive of anything but a level or plain".^[fourteen] A cloth or wallpaper in the Great Exhibition might be decorated with a natural motif made to look as real as possible, whereas these writers advocated flat and simplified natural motifs. Redgrave insisted that "style" demanded sound construction before ornamentation, and a proper awareness of the quality of materials used. "Utility must have precedence over ornamentation."^[15]

The Nature of Gothic by John Ruskin, printed by William Morris at the Kelmscott Press in 1892 in his Gilded Type inspired by 15th century printer Nicolas Jenson. This chapter from The Stones of Venice (book) was a sort of manifesto for the Arts and crafts movement.

However, the design reformers of the mid-19th century did not go every bit far as the designers of the Arts and crafts movement. They were more concerned with ornamentation than construction, they had an incomplete agreement of methods of manufacture,^[fifteen] and they did not criticise industrial methods equally such. By dissimilarity, the Arts and crafts movement was as much a movement of social reform as design reform, and its leading practitioners did not separate the two.

A. W. Due north. Pugin [edit]

Pugin'southward house "The Grange" in Ramsgate, 1843. Its simplified Gothic mode, adapted to domestic building, helped shape the compages of the Arts and crafts movement.

Some of the ideas of the movement were anticipated by A. Due west. North. Pugin (1812–1852), a leader in the Gothic revival in compages. For example, he advocated truth to material, structure, and part, as did the Craft artists.^[sixteen] Pugin articulated the tendency of social critics to compare the faults of modernistic social club with the Middle Ages,^[17] such equally the sprawling growth of cities and the handling of the poor—a tendency that became routine with Ruskin, Morris, and the Arts and Crafts movement. His volume Contrasts (1836) drew examples of bad mod buildings and boondocks planning in contrast with proficient medieval examples, and his biographer Rosemary Hill notes that he "reached conclusions, almost in passing, nearly the importance of adroitness and tradition in architecture that it would take the rest of the century and the combined efforts of Ruskin and Morris to piece of work out in detail." She describes the spare effects which he specified for a building in 1841, "rush chairs, oak tables", as "the Craft interior in embryo."^[17]

John Ruskin [edit]

The Arts and Crafts philosophy was derived in big mensurate from John Ruskin's social criticism, deeply influenced by the work of Thomas Carlyle.^[18] Ruskin related the moral and social health of a nation to the qualities of its architecture and to the nature of its work. Ruskin considered the sort of mechanized product and partitioning of labour that had been created in the industrial revolution to be "servile labour", and he thought that a healthy and moral society required contained workers who designed the things that they made. He believed mill-made works to exist "dishonest," and that handwork and craftsmanship merged nobility with labour.^[19] His followers favoured craft production over industrial manufacture and were concerned virtually the loss of traditional skills, but they were more troubled by the effects of the manufacturing plant organisation than past machinery itself.^[twenty] William Morris'south idea of "handicraft" was essentially work without any sectionalisation of labour rather than work without any sort of mechanism.^[21]

William Morris [edit]

William Morris, a textile designer who was a primal influence on the Arts and crafts move

William Morris (1834–1896) was the towering effigy in belatedly 19th-century design and the main influence on the Arts and crafts move. The artful and social vision of the move grew out of ideas that he developed in the 1850s with the Birmingham Set up – a grouping of students at the University of Oxford including Edward Burne-Jones, who combined a beloved of Romantic literature with a commitment to social reform.^[22] John William Mackail notes that "Carlyle's By and Nowadays stood alongside of [Ruskin'southward] Mod Painters as inspired and absolute truth."^[23] The medievalism of Mallory's Morte d'Arthur ready the standard for their early style.^[24] In Burne-Jones' words, they intended to "wage Holy warfare against the age".^[25]

William Morris's Carmine House in Bexleyheath, designed by Philip Webb and completed in 1860; one of the most significant buildings of the Arts and crafts move^[26]

Morris began experimenting with various crafts and designing furniture and interiors.^[27] He was personally involved in manufacture also every bit blueprint,^[27] which was the hallmark of the Craft movement. Ruskin had argued that the separation of the intellectual human activity of design from the transmission human action of physical cosmos was both socially and aesthetically damaging. Morris farther developed this idea, insisting that no piece of work should be carried out in his workshops before he had personally mastered the appropriate techniques and materials, arguing that "without dignified, artistic human occupation people became disconnected from life".^[27]

The weaving shed in Morris & Co'due south manufacturing plant at Merton, which opened in the 1880s

In 1861, Morris began making furniture and decorative objects commercially, modelling his designs on medieval styles and using bold forms and strong colours. His patterns were based on flora and animate being, and his products were inspired by the colloquial or domestic traditions of the British countryside. Some were deliberately left unfinished in club to display the beauty of the materials and the work of the craftsman, thus creating a rustic appearance. Morris strove to unite all the arts inside the decoration of the home, emphasizing nature and simplicity of form.^[28]

Social and design principles [edit]

Unlike their counterparts in the United States, most Craft practitioners in Britain had potent, slightly breathless, negative feelings nearly machinery. They thought of 'the craftsman' as complimentary, creative, and working with his hands, 'the machine' as soulless, repetitive, and inhuman. These contrasting images derive in role from John Ruskin'due south (1819–1900) The Stones of Venice, an architectural history of Venice that contains a powerful denunciation of modern industrialism to which Craft designers returned again and again. Distrust for the machine lay behind the many little workshops that turned their backs on the industrial world around 1900, using preindustrial techniques to create what they called 'crafts.'

— Alan Crawford, "W. A. S. Benson, Machinery, and the Arts and Crafts Movement in U.k."^[29]

Critique of industry [edit]

William Morris shared Ruskin's critique of industrial society and at one time or another attacked the modern factory, the utilise of machinery, the division of labour, commercialism and the loss of traditional craft methods. But his attitude to machinery was inconsistent. He said at one signal that production by machinery was "birthday an evil",^[10] merely at others times, he was willing to committee work from manufacturers who were able to come across his standards with the help of machines.^[30] Morris said that in a "true society", where neither luxuries nor cheap trash were made, machinery could be improved and used to reduce the hours of labour.^[31] Fiona MacCarthy says that "unlike subsequently zealots like Gandhi, William Morris had no applied objections to the utilize of machinery per se and then long every bit the machines produced the quality he needed."^[32]

Morris insisted that the artist should be a craftsman-designer working by mitt^[ten] and advocated a club of free craftspeople, such as he believed had existed during the Middle Ages. "Because craftsmen took pleasure in their work", he wrote, "the Middle Ages was a menstruum of greatness in the art of the common people. ... The treasures in our museums now are merely the common utensils used in households of that age, when hundreds of medieval churches – each one a masterpiece — were built by unsophisticated peasants."^[33] Medieval fine art was the model for much of Arts and crafts design, and medieval life, literature and building was idealised by the move.

Morris's followers besides had differing views about machinery and the manufactory system. For example, C. R. Ashbee, a central figure in the Arts and Crafts movement, said in 1888, that, "We do not reject the car, nosotros welcome information technology. But we would desire to see it mastered."^{[ten] [34]} After unsuccessfully pitting his Guild and School of Handicraft guild against modern methods of manufacture, he acknowledged that "Modernistic civilisation rests on machinery",^[10] only he continued to criticise the deleterious effects of what he called "mechanism", saying that "the product of certain mechanical commodities is as bad for the national health every bit is the production of slave-grown cane or child-sweated wares."^[35] William Arthur Smith Benson, on the other hand, had no qualms about adapting the Arts and Crafts way to metalwork produced under industrial conditions. (See quotation box.)

Morris and his followers believed the division of labour on which modern industry depended was undesirable, but the extent to which every design should be carried out by the designer was a matter for argue and disagreement. Not all Craft artists carried out every stage in the making of appurtenances themselves, and it was only in the twentieth century that that became essential to the definition of craftsmanship. Although Morris was famous for getting hands-on experience himself of many crafts (including weaving, dying, printing, calligraphy and embroidery), he did not regard the separation of designer and executant in his manufactory as problematic. Walter Crane, a shut political associate of Morris'south, took an unsympathetic view of the sectionalization of labour on both moral and artistic grounds, and strongly advocated that designing and making should come from the aforementioned hand. Lewis Foreman Twenty-four hours, a friend and gimmicky of Crane'southward, as unstinting as Crane in his adoration of Morris, disagreed strongly with Crane. He thought that the separation of blueprint and execution was not simply inevitable in the modern earth, but also that only that sort of specialisation allowed the best in design and the best in making.^[36] Few of the founders of the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society insisted that the designer should also be the maker. Peter Floud, writing in the 1950s, said that "The founders of the Society ... never executed their own designs, just invariably turned them over to commercial firms."^[37] The thought that the designer should be the maker and the maker the designer derived "not from Morris or early Arts and Crafts teaching, but rather from the second-generation elaboration doctrine worked out in the first decade of [the twentieth] century by men such as West. R. Lethaby".^[37]

[edit]

Many of the Arts and Crafts movement designers were socialists, including Morris, T. J. Cobden Sanderson, Walter Crane, C.R. Ashbee, Philip Webb, Charles Faulkner, and A. H. Mackmurdo.^[38] In the early 1880s, Morris was spending more of his time on promoting socialism than on designing and making.^[39] Ashbee established a customs of craftsmen called the Guild of Handicraft in east London, later moving to Chipping Campden.^[7] Those adherents who were not socialists, such as Alfred Hoare Powell,^[20] advocated a more than humane and personal relationship betwixt employer and employee. Lewis Foreman 24-hour interval was another successful and influential Arts and crafts designer who was not a socialist, despite his long friendship with Crane.

Association with other reform movements [edit]

In United kingdom, the movement was associated with dress reform,^[40] ruralism, the garden city motility^[6] and the folk-song revival. All were linked, in some caste, by the platonic of "the Uncomplicated Life".^[41] In continental Europe the motility was associated with the preservation of national traditions in building, the applied arts, domestic design and costume.^[42]

Development [edit]

Morris's designs chop-chop became pop, attracting interest when his company'south work was exhibited at the 1862 International Exhibition in London. Much of Morris & Co's early on piece of work was for churches and Morris won of import interior pattern commissions at St James'due south Palace and the South Kensington Museum (now the Victoria and Albert Museum). Subsequently his work became popular with the middle and upper classes, despite his wish to create a democratic fine art, and by the finish of the 19th century, Arts and crafts design in houses and domestic interiors was the dominant way in United kingdom, copied in products made past conventional industrial methods.

The spread of Craft ideas during the tardily 19th and early 20th centuries resulted in the establishment of many associations and craft communities, although Morris had piffling to do with them because of his preoccupation with socialism at the fourth dimension. A hundred and xxx Craft organisations were formed in Britain, most between 1895 and 1905.^[43]

In 1881, Eglantyne Louisa Jebb, Mary Fraser Tytler and others initiated the Home Arts and Industries Association to encourage the working classes, especially those in rural areas, to have upwards handicrafts under supervision, not for profit, just in order to provide them with useful occupations and to amend their gustation. By 1889 it had 450 classes, one,000 teachers and 5,000 students.^[44]

In 1882, builder A.H.Mackmurdo formed the Century Gild, a partnership of designers including Selwyn Epitome, Herbert Horne, Clement Heaton and Benjamin Creswick.^{[45] [46]}

In 1884, the Art Workers Gild was initiated by five immature architects, William Lethaby, Edward Prior, Ernest Newton, Mervyn Macartney and Gerald C. Horsley, with the goal of bringing together fine and applied arts and raising the status of the latter. It was directed originally by George Blackall Simonds. By 1890 the Society had 150 members, representing the increasing number of practitioners of the Arts and Crafts style.^[47] It still exists.

The London section shop Liberty & Co., founded in 1875, was a prominent retailer of goods in the style and of the "artistic clothes" favoured by followers of the Arts and Crafts movement.

In 1887 the Craft Exhibition Society, which gave its name to the movement, was formed with Walter Crane as president, holding its first exhibition in the New Gallery, London, in November 1888.^[48] Information technology was the commencement show of contemporary decorative arts in London since the Grosvenor Gallery's Winter Exhibition of 1881.^[49] Morris & Co. was well represented in the exhibition with furniture, fabrics, carpets and embroideries. Edward Burne-Jones observed, "hither for the offset time 1 can measure a bit the alter that has happened in the final twenty years".^[50] The society even so exists as the Society of Designer Craftsmen.^[51]

In 1888, C.R.Ashbee, a major late practitioner of the style in England, founded the Guild and Schoolhouse of Handicraft in the East Finish of London. The guild was a craft co-operative modelled on the medieval guilds and intended to give working men satisfaction in their craftsmanship. Skilled craftsmen, working on the principles of Ruskin and Morris, were to produce hand-crafted goods and manage a school for apprentices. The idea was greeted with enthusiasm by almost everyone except Morris, who was by now involved with promoting socialism and thought Ashbee's scheme trivial. From 1888 to 1902 the order prospered, employing about 50 men. In 1902 Ashbee relocated the guild out of London to brainstorm an experimental customs in Chipping Campden in the Cotswolds. The guild's work is characterised by plain surfaces of hammered silvery, flowing wirework and colored stones in simple settings. Ashbee designed jewellery and silver tableware. The guild flourished at Chipping Camden but did not prosper and was liquidated in 1908. Some craftsmen stayed, contributing to the tradition of modern adroitness in the surface area.^{[xvi] [52] [53]}

C.F.A. Voysey (1857–1941) was an Arts and Crafts builder who besides designed fabrics, tiles, ceramics, furniture and metalwork. His style combined simplicity with sophistication. His wallpapers and textiles, featuring stylised bird and plant forms in bold outlines with flat colors, were used widely.^[16]

Morris's thought influenced the distributism of G. K. Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc.^[54]

Coleton Fishacre was designed in 1925 as a holiday domicile in Kingswear, Devon, England, in the Craft tradition.

By the end of the nineteenth century, Arts and crafts ethics had influenced architecture, painting, sculpture, graphics, analogy, book making and photography, domestic pattern and the decorative arts, including furniture and woodwork, stained glass,^[55] leatherwork, lacemaking, embroidery, rug making and weaving, jewelry and metalwork, enameling and ceramics.^[56] By 1910, there was a fashion for "Arts and Crafts" and all things hand-made. There was a proliferation of amateur handicrafts of variable quality^[57] and of incompetent imitators who caused the public to regard Arts and Crafts equally "something less, instead of more than, competent and fit for purpose than an ordinary mass produced article."^[58]

The Arts and crafts Exhibition Club held eleven exhibitions between 1888 and 1916. By the outbreak of state of war in 1914 it was in turn down and faced a crisis. Its 1912 exhibition had been a fiscal failure.^[59] While designers in continental Europe were making innovations in design and alliances with industry through initiatives such every bit the Deutsche Werkbund and new initiatives were being taken in Britain by the Omega Workshops and the Design in Industries Association, the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society, now nether the command of an old guard, was withdrawing from commerce and collaboration with manufacturers into purist handwork and what Tania Harrod describes as "decommoditisation"^[59] Its rejection of a commercial role has been seen every bit a turning point in its fortunes.^[59] Nikolaus Pevsner in his book Pioneers of Modern Design presents the Craft movement as pattern radicals who influenced the modern motion, merely failed to change and were eventually superseded past it.^[ten]

Afterward influences [edit]

The British artist potter Bernard Leach brought to England many ideas he had developed in Japan with the social critic Yanagi Soetsu about the moral and social value of simple crafts; both were enthusiastic readers of Ruskin. Leach was an active propagandist for these ideas, which struck a chord with practitioners of the crafts in the inter-state of war years, and he expounded them in A Potter'due south Book, published in 1940, which denounced industrial gild in terms as vehement as those of Ruskin and Morris. Thus the Craft philosophy was perpetuated among British craft workers in the 1950s and 1960s, long after the demise of the Arts and Crafts motility and at the high tide of Modernism. British Utility furniture of the 1940s also derived from Arts and crafts principles.^[60] 1 of its principal promoters, Gordon Russell, chairman of the Utility Piece of furniture Pattern Panel, was imbued with Arts and Crafts ideas. He manufactured article of furniture in the Cotswold Hills, a region of Arts and Crafts piece of furniture-making since Ashbee, and he was a fellow member of the Arts and crafts Exhibition Society. William Morris'southward biographer, Fiona MacCarthy, detected the Arts and crafts philosophy fifty-fifty behind the Festival of Great britain (1951), the work of the designer Terence Conran (b. 1931)^{[half dozen]} and the founding of the British Crafts Council in the 1970s.^[61]

By region [edit]

The British Isles [edit]

Stained glass window, The Hill House, Helensburgh, Argyll and Bute

Scotland [edit]

The beginnings of the Arts and crafts movement in Scotland were in the stained glass revival of the 1850s, pioneered by James Ballantine (1808–1877). His major works included the great west window of Dunfermline Abbey and the scheme for St. Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh. In Glasgow it was pioneered by Daniel Cottier (1838–1891), who had probably studied with Ballantine, and was directly influenced by William Morris, Ford Madox Dark-brown and John Ruskin. His key works included the Baptism of Christ in Paisley Abbey, (c. 1880). His followers included Stephen Adam and his son of the same name.^[62] The Glasgow-born designer and theorist Christopher Dresser (1834–1904) was one of the first, and most important, independent designers, a pivotal figure in the Aesthetic Move and a major contributor to the centrolineal Anglo-Japanese movement.^[63] The movement had an "extraordinary flowering" in Scotland where information technology was represented by the development of the 'Glasgow Style' which was based on the talent of the Glasgow Schoolhouse of Art. Celtic revival took concord here, and motifs such every bit the Glasgow rose became popularised. Charles Rennie Mackintosh (1868 – 1928) and the Glasgow Schoolhouse of Fine art were to influence others worldwide.^{[one] [56]}

Wales [edit]

The state of affairs in Wales was different than elsewhere in the UK. Insofar as adroitness was concerned, Craft was a revivalist campaign. Just in Wales, at to the lowest degree until Globe War I, a genuine craft tradition even so existed. Local materials, rock or clay, continued to be used as a matter of course.^[64]

Scotland get known in the Arts and crafts movement for its stained glass; Wales would become known for its pottery. Past the mid 19th century, the heavy, salt glazes used for generations past local craftsmen had gone out of fashion, not least as mass-produced ceramics undercut prices. Simply the Arts and crafts Motility brought new appreciation to their work. Horace West Elliot, an English gallerist, visited the Ewenny Pottery (which dated back to the 17th century) in 1885, to both find local pieces and encourage a manner compatible with the movement.^[65] The pieces he brought back to London for the next 20 years revivified involvement in Welsh pottery piece of work.

A cardinal promoter of the Arts and crafts motion in Wales was Owen Morgan Edwards. Edwards was a reforming politician dedicated to renewing Welsh pride by exposing its people to their ain language and history. For Edwards, "There is nothing that Wales requires more than an pedagogy in the arts and crafts."^[66]—though Edwards was more inclined to resurrecting Welsh Nationalism than admiring glazes or rustic integrity.^[67]

In architecture, Clough Williams-Ellis sought to renew involvement in ancient building, reviving "rammed earth" or pisé[ane] construction in Britain.

Ireland [edit]

The movement spread to Ireland, representing an important time for the nation'south cultural development, a visual counterpart to the literary revival of the same fourth dimension^[68] and was a publication of Irish gaelic nationalism. The Craft apply of stained glass was pop in Republic of ireland, with Harry Clarke the best-known artist and too with Evie Hone. The architecture of the style is represented past the Honan Chapel (1916) in Cork city in the grounds of University College Cork.^[69] Other architects practicing in Republic of ireland included Sir Edwin Lutyens (Heywood House in Co. Laois, Lambay Island and the Irish National War Memorial Gardens in Dublin) and Frederick 'Pa' Hicks (Malahide Castle manor buildings and round tower). Irish gaelic Celtic motifs were popular with the movement in silvercraft, carpet pattern, book illustrations and hand-carved furniture.

Continental Europe [edit]

In continental Europe, the revival and preservation of national styles was an important motive of Arts and crafts designers; for example, in Germany, after unification in 1871 under the encouragement of the Bund für Heimatschutz (1897)^[70] and the Vereinigte Werkstätten für Kunst im Handwerk founded in 1898 past Karl Schmidt; and in Hungary Károly Kós revived the vernacular style of Transylvanian building. In central Europe, where several diverse nationalities lived under powerful empires (Germany, Austria-hungary and Russia), the discovery of the vernacular was associated with the assertion of national pride and the striving for independence, and, whereas for Arts and Crafts practitioners in United kingdom the ideal manner was to be found in the medieval, in cardinal Europe it was sought in remote peasant villages.^[71]

Widely exhibited in Europe, the Arts and Crafts style's simplicity inspired designers similar Henry van de Velde and styles such every bit Art Nouveau, the Dutch De Stijl group, Vienna Secession, and eventually the Bauhaus style. Pevsner regarded the style equally a prelude to Modernism, which used uncomplicated forms without ornamentation.^[10]

The earliest Arts and Crafts activeness in continental Europe was in Belgium in about 1890, where the English style inspired artists and architects including Henry Van de Velde, Gabriel Van Dievoet, Gustave Serrurier-Bovy and a group known as La Libre Esthétique (Gratis Aesthetic).

Craft products were admired in Austria and Germany in the early 20th century, and under their inspiration pattern moved rapidly forward while it stagnated in United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland.^[72] The Wiener Werkstätte, founded in 1903 by Josef Hoffmann and Koloman Moser, was influenced by the Arts and Crafts principles of the "unity of the arts" and the hand-made. The Deutscher Werkbund (High german Association of Craftsmen) was formed in 1907 as an association of artists, architects, designers, and industrialists to improve the global competitiveness of German businesses and became an of import element in the evolution of modernistic compages and industrial design through its advocacy of standardized production. Still, its leading members, van de Velde and Hermann Muthesius, had conflicting opinions virtually standardization. Muthesius believed that information technology was essential were Germany to become a leading nation in merchandise and culture. Van de Velde, representing a more traditional Arts and Crafts attitude, believed that artists would forever "protest against the imposition of orders or standardization," and that "The creative person ... volition never, of his own accord, submit to a discipline which imposes on him a canon or a type." ^[73]

In Finland, an idealistic artists' colony in Helsinki was designed by Herman Gesellius, Armas Lindgren and Eliel Saarinen,^[1] who worked in the National Romantic mode, alike to the British Gothic Revival.

In Republic of hungary, under the influence of Ruskin and Morris, a grouping of artists and architects, including Károly Kós, Aladár Körösfői-Kriesch and Ede Toroczkai Wigand, discovered the folk fine art and vernacular architecture of Transylvania. Many of Kós's buildings, including those in the Budapest zoo and the Wekerle estate in the same metropolis, show this influence.^[74]

In Russia, Viktor Hartmann, Viktor Vasnetsov, Yelena Polenova and other artists associated with Abramtsevo Colony sought to revive the quality of medieval Russian decorative arts quite independently from the movement in Great britain.

In Iceland, Sölvi Helgason's work shows Arts and crafts influence.

Northward America [edit]

Warren Wilson Embankment House (The Venice Beach House), Venice, California

Hazard House, Pasadena, California

Arts and crafts Tudor Home in the Buena Park Celebrated District, Uptown, Chicago

Instance of Arts and Crafts style influence on Federation architecture Notice the faceted bay window and the stone base of operations.

Arts and Crafts home in the Birckhead Place neighborhood of Toledo, Ohio

In the U.s.a., the Arts and Crafts manner initiated a variety of attempts to reinterpret European Arts and Crafts ideals for Americans. These included the "Craftsman"-style architecture, furniture, and other decorative arts such as designs promoted by Gustav Stickley in his magazine, The Craftsman and designs produced on the Roycroft campus equally publicized in Elbert Hubbard's The Fra. Both men used their magazines every bit a vehicle to promote the appurtenances produced with the Craftsman workshop in Eastwood, NY and Elbert Hubbard's Roycroft campus in East Aurora, NY. A host of imitators of Stickley'southward article of furniture (the designs of which are often mislabelled the "Mission Manner") included three companies established past his brothers.

The terms American Craftsman or Craftsman style are often used to announce the fashion of architecture, interior design, and decorative arts that prevailed between the dominant eras of Art Nouveau and Fine art Deco in the US, or approximately the flow from 1910 to 1925. The movement was particularly notable for the professional opportunities it opened up for women equally artisans, designers and entrepreneurs who founded and ran, or were employed by, such successful enterprises as the Kalo Shops, Pewabic Pottery, Rookwood Pottery, and Tiffany Studios. In Canada, the term Arts and Crafts predominates, but Craftsman is also recognized.^[75]

While the Europeans tried to recreate the virtuous crafts being replaced past industrialisation, Americans tried to establish a new type of virtue to replace heroic arts and crafts production: well-decorated eye-form homes. They claimed that the elementary but refined aesthetics of Arts and Crafts decorative arts would ennoble the new experience of industrial consumerism, making individuals more than rational and club more than harmonious. The American Arts and crafts movement was the aesthetic counterpart of its gimmicky political philosophy, progressivism. Characteristically, when the Craft Society began in October 1897 in Chicago, it was at Hull House, 1 of the first American settlement houses for social reform.^[76]

Craft ideals disseminated in America through journal and newspaper writing were supplemented by societies that sponsored lectures.^[76] The first was organized in Boston in the late 1890s, when a group of influential architects, designers, and educators determined to bring to America the pattern reforms begun in Britain past William Morris; they met to organize an exhibition of contemporary arts and crafts objects. The offset meeting was held on January four, 1897, at the Museum of Fine Arts (MFA) in Boston to organize an exhibition of contemporary crafts. When craftsmen, consumers, and manufacturers realised the aesthetic and technical potential of the applied arts, the process of design reform in Boston started. Present at this meeting were General Charles Loring, Chairman of the Trustees of the MFA; William Sturgis Bigelow and Denman Ross, collectors, writers and MFA trustees; Ross Turner, painter; Sylvester Baxter, art critic for the Boston Transcript; Howard Baker, A.W. Longfellow Jr.; and Ralph Clipson Sturgis, architect.

The offset American Arts and Crafts Exhibition began on April v, 1897, at Copley Hall, Boston featuring more than than 1000 objects made by 160 craftsmen, half of whom were women.^[77] Some of the advocates of the showroom were Langford Warren, founder of Harvard's School of Architecture; Mrs. Richard Morris Hunt; Arthur Astor Carey and Edwin Mead, social reformers; and Will H. Bradley, graphic designer. The success of this exhibition resulted in the incorporation of The Society of Arts and Crafts (SAC), on June 28, 1897, with a mandate to "develop and encourage higher standards in the handicrafts." The 21 founders claimed to exist interested in more than sales, and emphasized encouragement of artists to produce piece of work with the best quality of workmanship and design. This mandate was presently expanded into a credo, possibly written by the SAC's first president, Charles Eliot Norton, which read:

This Society was incorporated for the purpose of promoting artistic piece of work in all branches of handicraft. It hopes to bring Designers and Workmen into mutually helpful relations, and to encourage workmen to execute designs of their ain. It endeavors to stimulate in workmen an appreciation of the dignity and value of good design; to annul the popular impatience of Law and Form, and the desire for over-ornamentation and specious originality. It will insist upon the necessity of sobriety and restraint, or ordered arrangement, of due regard for the relation between the form of an object and its employ, and of harmony and fitness in the decoration put upon information technology.^[78]

Congenital in 1913-14 by the Boston architect J. Williams Beal in the Ossipee Mountains of New Hampshire, Tom and Olive Found's mountaintop estate, Castle in the Clouds as well known as Lucknow, is an excellent case of the American Craftsman fashion in New England.^[79]

Also influential were the Roycroft community initiated by Elbert Hubbard in Buffalo and East Aurora, New York, Joseph Marbella, utopian communities like Byrdcliffe Colony in Woodstock, New York, and Rose Valley, Pennsylvania, developments such as Mountain Lakes, New Bailiwick of jersey, featuring clusters of bungalow and chateau homes built by Herbert J. Hapgood, and the contemporary studio arts and crafts style. Studio pottery—exemplified by the Grueby Faience Company, Newcomb Pottery in New Orleans, Marblehead Pottery, Teco pottery, Overbeck and Rookwood pottery and Mary Chase Perry Stratton'due south Pewabic Pottery in Detroit, the Van Briggle Pottery company in Colorado Springs, Colorado, as well as the art tiles made by Ernest A. Batchelder in Pasadena, California, and idiosyncratic furniture of Charles Rohlfs all demonstrate the influence of Arts and Crafts.

Architecture and Art [edit]

The "Prairie Schoolhouse" of Frank Lloyd Wright, George Washington Maher and other architects in Chicago, the Country Day School motion, the bungalow and ultimate bungalow style of houses popularized past Greene and Greene, Julia Morgan, and Bernard Maybeck are some examples of the American Arts and Crafts and American Craftsman fashion of architecture. Restored and landmark-protected examples are still present in America, particularly in California in Berkeley and Pasadena, and the sections of other towns originally adult during the era and not experiencing mail-war urban renewal. Mission Revival, Prairie School, and the 'California bungalow' styles of residential building remain popular in the The states today.

As theoreticians, educators, and prolific artists in mediums from printmaking to pottery and pastel, two of the well-nigh influential figures were Arthur Wesley Dow (1857-1922) on the East Coast and Pedro Joseph de Lemos (1882-1954) in California. Dow, who taught at Columbia University and founded the Ipswich Summer School of Fine art, published in 1899 his landmark Composition, which distilled into a distinctly American approach the essence of Japanese composition, combining into a decorative harmonious amalgam three elements: simplicity of line, "notan" (the residual of light and dark areas), and symmetry of colour.^[80] His purpose was to create objects that were finely crafted and beautifully rendered. His student de Lemos, who became head of the San Francisco Fine art Establish, Director of the Stanford University Museum and Fine art Gallery, and Editor-in-Primary of the School Arts Mag, expanded and substantially revised Dow's ideas in over 150 monographs and articles for fine art schools in the U.s. and United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland.^[81] Among his many unorthodox teachings was his belief that manufactured products could limited "the sublime beauty" and that great insight was to be found in the abstract "design forms" of pre-Columbian civilizations.

Museums [edit]

The Museum of the American Arts and Crafts Movement in St. petersburg, Florida, opened its doors in 2019.^{[82] [83]}

Asia [edit]

In Japan, Yanagi Sōetsu, creator of the Mingei move which promoted folk fine art from the 1920s onwards, was influenced past the writings of Morris and Ruskin.^[33] Like the Arts and Crafts movement in Europe, Mingei sought to preserve traditional crafts in the face of modernising manufacture.

Compages [edit]

The movement ... represents in some sense a revolt confronting the difficult mechanical conventional life and its insensibility to beauty (quite another affair to ornament). It is a protest confronting that then-called industrial progress which produces shoddy wares, the cheapness of which is paid for by the lives of their producers and the degradation of their users. It is a protest against the turning of men into machines, against bogus distinctions in fine art, and against making the firsthand market value, or possibility of profit, the chief examination of artistic merit. It also advances the claim of all and each to the common possession of beauty in things common and familiar, and would awaken the sense of this beauty, deadened and depressed equally it now too often is, either on the one manus by luxurious superfluities, or on the other by the absence of the commonest necessities and the gnawing feet for the ways of livelihood; not to speak of the everyday uglinesses to which we take accustomed our eyes, confused by the flood of simulated taste, or darkened by the hurried life of mod towns in which huge aggregations of humanity exist, as removed from both fine art and nature and their kindly and refining influences.

-- Walter Crane, "Of The Revival of Pattern and Handicraft", in Craft Essays, by Members of the Arts and crafts Exhibition Society, 1893

Many of the leaders of the Arts and Crafts motility were trained as architects (eastward.m. William Morris, A. H. Mackmurdo, C. R. Ashbee, W. R. Lethaby) and information technology was on building that the motion had its nigh visible and lasting influence.

Cherry House, in Bexleyheath, London, designed for Morris in 1859 by builder Philip Webb, exemplifies the early Arts and Crafts style, with its well-proportioned solid forms, wide porches, steep roof, pointed window arches, brick fireplaces and wooden fittings. Webb rejected classical and other revivals of historical styles based on thou buildings, and based his design on British vernacular compages, expressing the texture of ordinary materials, such as stone and tiles, with an asymmetrical and picturesque building composition.^[16]

The London suburb of Bedford Park, built mainly in the 1880s and 1890s, has well-nigh 360 Arts and Crafts style houses and was once famous for its Aesthetic residents. Several Almshouses were built in the Craft style, for case, Whiteley Hamlet, Surrey, built between 1914 and 1917, with over 280 buildings, and the Dyers Almshouses, Sussex, congenital between 1939 and 1971. Letchworth Garden City, the first garden city, was inspired by Arts and Crafts ideals.^[6] The beginning houses were designed past Barry Parker and Raymond Unwin in the vernacular style popularized by the movement and the town became associated with high-mindedness and uncomplicated living. The sandal-making workshop set upward by Edward Carpenter moved from Yorkshire to Letchworth Garden City and George Orwell's jibe about "every fruit-juice drinker, nudist, sandal-wearer, sex-bedlamite, Quaker, 'Nature Cure' quack, pacifist, and feminist in England" going to a socialist conference in Letchworth has go famous.^[84]

Architectural examples [edit]

• Red House – Bexleyheath, Kent – 1859
• David Parr House - Cambridge, England - 1886-1926
• Wightwick Manor – Wolverhampton, England – 1887–93
• Inglewood – Leicester, England – 1892
• Standen – E Grinstead, England – 1894
• Swedenborgian Church building – San Francisco, California – 1895
• Mary Ward House - Bloomsbury, London - 1896-98
• Blackwell – Lake District, England – 1898
• Derwent House – Chislehurst, Kent – 1899
• Stoneywell – Ulverscroft, Leicestershire – 1899
• The Arts & Crafts Church (Long Street Methodist Church and Schoolhouse) – Manchester, England – 1900
• Spade House – Sandgate, Kent – 1900
• Caledonian Estate – Islington, London – 1900–1907
• Horniman Museum – Woods Hill, London – 1901
• All Saints' Church, Brockhampton - 1901-02
• Shaw'south Corner – Ayot St Lawrence, Hertfordshire – 1902
• Pierre P. Ferry House – Seattle, Washington – 1903–1906
• Winterbourne Firm – Birmingham, England – 1904
• The Black Friar – Blackfriars, London – 1905
• Marston House – San Diego, California – 1905
• Edgar Wood Middle – Manchester, England – 1905
• Debenham House – Holland Park, London – 1905-07
• Robert R. Blacker House – Pasadena, California – 1907
• Stotfold, Bickley, Kent - 1907
• Gamble House – Pasadena, California – 1908
• Oregon Public Library – Oregon, Illinois – 1909
• Thorsen House – Berkeley, California – 1909
• Rodmarton Manor – Rodmarton, near Cirencester, Gloucestershire – 1909–29
• Whare Ra – Havelock North, New Zealand – 1912
• Sutton Garden Suburb – Benhilton, Sutton, London – 1912–14
• Castle in the Clouds - Ossipee Mountains at Lake Winnipesaukee, New Hampshire - 1913-4
• Honan Chapel – University College Cork, Ireland – c.1916
• St Francis Xavier's Cathedral – Geraldton Western Australia 1916–1938
• Bedales School Memorial Library – near Petersfield, Hampshire – 1919–21

Garden design [edit]

Gertrude Jekyll applied Arts and Crafts principles to garden design. She worked with the English architect, Sir Edwin Lutyens, for whose projects she created numerous landscapes, and who designed her domicile Munstead Woods, near Godalming in Surrey.^[85] Jekyll created the gardens for Bishopsbarns,^[86] the home of York architect Walter Brierley, an exponent of the Arts and crafts move and known as the "Lutyens of the North".^[87] The garden for Brierley's final projection, Goddards in York, was the work of George Dillistone, a gardener who worked with Lutyens and Jekyll at Castle Drogo.^[88] At Goddards the garden incorporated a number of features that reflected the arts and crafts style of the house, such every bit the use of hedges and herbaceous borders to carve up the garden into a series of outdoor rooms.^[89] Some other notable Arts and crafts garden is Hidcote Estate Garden designed by Lawrence Johnston which is also laid out in a series of outdoor rooms and where, like Goddards, the landscaping becomes less formal further away from the house.^[90] Other examples of Craft gardens include Hestercombe Gardens, Lytes Cary Manor and the gardens of some of the architectural examples of arts and crafts buildings (listed above).

Art education [edit]

Morris's ideas were adopted past the New Education Movement in the tardily 1880s, which incorporated handicraft educational activity in schools at Abbotsholme (1889) and Bedales (1892), and his influence has been noted in the social experiments of Dartington Hall during the mid-20th century.^[61]

Arts and crafts practitioners in Britain were critical of the government system of art education based on blueprint in the abstruse with picayune teaching of practical arts and crafts. This lack of craft training also caused concern in industrial and official circles, and in 1884 a Royal Commission (accepting the advice of William Morris) recommended that art education should pay more attention to the suitability of design to the material in which it was to be executed.^[91] The first school to brand this modify was the Birmingham School of Arts and Crafts, which "led the way in introducing executed blueprint to the educational activity of fine art and design nationally (working in the textile for which the design was intended rather than designing on paper). In his external examiner'south report of 1889, Walter Crane praised Birmingham School of Art in that it 'considered design in relationship to materials and usage.'"^[92] Under the direction of Edward Taylor, its headmaster from 1877 to 1903, and with the help of Henry Payne and Joseph Southall, the Birmingham Schoolhouse became a leading Arts-and-Crafts centre.^[93]

George Frampton. Season ticket to The Arts and Craft Exhibition Lodge 1890.

Other local authority schools likewise began to introduce more applied educational activity of crafts, and by the 1890s Arts and crafts ideals were being disseminated past members of the Art Workers Guild into fine art schools throughout the country. Members of the Social club held influential positions: Walter Crane was manager of the Manchester School of Art and after the Royal College of Art; F.Thou. Simpson, Robert Anning Bong and C.J.Allen were respectively professor of architecture, instructor in painting and blueprint, and instructor in sculpture at Liverpool School of Fine art; Robert Catterson-Smith, the headmaster of the Birmingham Art School from 1902 to 1920, was also an AWG member; W. R. Lethaby and George Frampton were inspectors and advisors to the London County Quango's (LCC) educational activity lath and in 1896, largely as a result of their work, the LCC prepare upward the Cardinal School of Arts and Crafts and made them joint principals.^[94] Until the formation of the Bauhaus in Germany, the Central Schoolhouse was regarded every bit the most progressive art school in Europe.^[95] Shortly after its foundation, the Camberwell School of Craft was set upwardly on Craft lines past the local civic council.

Equally head of the Royal Higher of Fine art in 1898, Crane tried to reform it along more than applied lines, but resigned after a year, defeated by the hierarchy of the Board of Education, who then appointed Augustus Spencer to implement his plan. Spencer brought in Lethaby to caput its school of blueprint and several members of the Fine art Workers' Club as teachers.^[94] Ten years after reform, a committee of research reviewed the RCA and found that information technology was still not adequately training students for industry.^[96] In the argue that followed the publication of the committee's report, C.R.Ashbee published a highly critical essay, Should We Stop Teaching Art, in which he called for the system of art instruction to be completely dismantled and for the crafts to be learned in state-subsidised workshops instead.^[97] Lewis Foreman Day, an important figure in the Craft motility, took a different view in his dissenting report to the committee of inquiry, arguing for greater emphasis on principles of design against the growing orthodoxy of education design past direct working in materials. Still, the Arts and Crafts ethos thoroughly pervaded British art schools and persisted, in the view of the historian of art education, Stuart MacDonald, until after the Second World War.^[94]

Leading practitioners [edit]

• Charles Robert Ashbee
• William Swinden Hairdresser
• Barnsley brothers
• Detmar Blow
• Herbert Tudor Buckland
• Rowland Wilfred William Carter
• T. J. Cobden-Sanderson
• Walter Crane
• Nelson Dawson
• Lewis Foreman Twenty-four hour period
• Christopher Dresser
• Dirk van Erp
• Thomas Phillips Figgis
• Eric Gill
• Ernest Gimson
• Greene & Greene
• Elbert Hubbard
• Norman Jewson
• Ralph Johonnot
• Florence Koehler
• Frederick Leach
• William Lethaby
• Edwin Lutyens
• Charles Rennie Mackintosh
• A.H.Mackmurdo
• Samuel Maclure
• George Washington Maher
• Bernard Maybeck
• Henry Chapman Mercer
• Julia Morgan
• William De Morgan
• William Morris
• Karl Parsons
• Alfred Hoare Powell
• Edward Schroeder Prior
• Hugh C. Robertson
• William Robinson
• Baillie Scott
• Norman Shaw
• Ellen Gates Starr
• Gustav Stickley
• Phoebe Anna Traquair
• C.F.A. Voysey
• Philip Webb
• Margaret Ely Webb
• Christopher Whall
• Edgar Woods
• Charles Rohlfs

Decorative arts gallery [edit]

• 

See also [edit]

• Modernistic Style (British Art Nouveau style)
• Philip Clissett
• The English Firm
• Charles Prendergast
• William Morris wallpaper designs
• William Morris textile designs

References [edit]

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Bibliography and further reading [edit]

• Ayers, Dianne (2002). American Craft Textiles. New York: Harry N. Abrams. ISBN0-8109-0434-9.
• Blakesley, Rosalind P. The arts and crafts movement (Phaidon, 2006).
• Boris, Eileen (1986). Art and Labor . Philadelphia: Temple University Printing. ISBN0-87722-384-Ten.
• Carruthers, Annette. The Arts and Crafts Motion in Scotland: A History (2013) online review
• Cathers, David One thousand. (1981). Furniture of the American Arts and crafts Move. The New American Library, Inc. ISBN0-453-00397-four.
• Cathers, David M. (2014). So Diverse Are The Forms It Assumes: American Arts & Crafts Furniture from the Two Reddish Roses Foundation. Marquand Books. ISBN978-0-692-21348-3.
• Cathers, David M. (20 February 2017). These Humbler Metals: Arts and crafts Metalwork from the Two Red Roses Foundation Collection. Marquand Books. ISBN978-0-615-98869-half-dozen.
• Cormack, Peter. Arts & crafts stained glass (Yale Up, 2015).
• Cumming, Elizabeth; Kaplan, Wendy (1991). Arts & Crafts Movement. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN0-500-20248-6.
• Cumming, Elizabeth (2006). Hand, Heart and Soul: The Arts and crafts Movement in Scotland. Birlinn. ISBN978-one-84158-419-5.
• Danahay, Martin. "Arts and Crafts as a Transatlantic Movement: CR Ashbee in the United States, 1896–1915." Journal of Victorian Civilization 20.1 (2015): 65–86.
• Greensted, Mary. The arts and crafts movement in Britain (Shire, 2010).
• Johnson, Bruce (2012). Arts & Crafts Shopmarks. Fletcher, NC: Knock On Woods Publications. ISBN978-1-4507-9024-half dozen.
• Kaplan, Wendy (1987). The Art that Is Life: The Arts & Crafts Movement in America 1875-1920. New York: Little, Dark-brown and Visitor.
• Kreisman, Lawrence, and Glenn Mason. The Arts & Arts and crafts Movement in the Pacific Northwest (Timber Press, 2007).
• Krugh, Michele. "Joy in labour: The politicization of craft from the arts and crafts move to Etsy." Canadian Review of American Studies 44.2 (2014): 281–301. online
• Luckman, Susan. "Precarious labour then and now: The British arts and crafts movement and cultural work revisited." Theorizing Cultural Work (Routledge, 2014) pp. 33–43 online.
• MacCarthy, Fiona (2009). "Morris, William (1834–1896), designer, author, and visionary socialist". Oxford Lexicon of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/19322. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
• MacCarthy, Fiona (1994). William Morris. Faber and Faber. ISBN0-571-17495-7.
• Mascia-Lees, Frances East. "American Beauty: The Eye Class Arts and Crafts Revival in the Us." in Critical Craft (Routledge, 2020) pp. 57–77.
• Meister, Maureen. Arts and Crafts Architecture: History and Heritage in New England (UP of New England, 2014).
• Naylor, Gillian (1971). The Arts and crafts Move: a study of its sources, ideals and influence on design theory . London: Studio Vista. ISBN028979580X.
• Parry, Linda (2005). Textiles of the Arts and Crafts Movement. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN0-500-28536-5.
• Penick, Monica, Christopher Long, and Harry Ransom Center, eds. The ascension of everyday design: The arts and crafts movement in Britain and America (Yale Upwards, 2019).
• Richardson, Margaret. Architects of the arts and crafts movement (1983)
• Tankard, Judith B. Gardens of the Arts and Crafts Movement (Timber Press, 2018)
• Teehan, Virginia; Heckett, Elizabeth (2005). The Honan Chapel: A Golden Vision. Cork: Cork University Press. ISBN978-1-8591-8346-5.
• Thomas, Zoë. "Betwixt Art and Commerce: Women, Business Ownership, and the Craft Movement." By & Nowadays 247.ane (2020): 151–196. online
• Triggs, Oscar Lovell. The arts & crafts movement (Parkstone International, 2014).
• Wildman, Stephen (1998). Edward Burne-Jones, Victorian artist-dreamer. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN9780870998584 . Retrieved 26 December 2013.

External links [edit]

• Fiona MacCarthy, "The quondam romantics", The Guardian, Saturday 5 March 2005 01.25 GMT
• Furniture makers of America and Canada during the Arts & Crafts Move
• The showtime public museum exclusively dedicated to the American Arts & Crafts move
• Itemize lists with images of the major American Arts & Crafts piece of furniture makers Archived 2017-06-21 at the Wayback Car

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_movement

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